{"product_id":"ecological-methods-isbn-9781118895283","title":"Ecological Methods","description":"\u003cp\u003e4th edition of this classic Ecology text\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003eComputational methods have largely been replaced by descriptions of the available software\u003c\/li\u003e \u003cli\u003eIncludes procedure information for R software and other freely available software systems\u003c\/li\u003e \u003cli\u003eNow includes web references for equipment, software and detailed methodologies \u003c\/li\u003e \u003c\/ul\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrefaces xiii\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbout the Companion Website xix\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1 Introduction to the Study of Animal Populations 1\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.1 Population estimates 2\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.1.1 Absolute and related estimates 2\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.1.2 Relative estimates 3\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.1.3 Population indices 4\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2 Errors and confidence 4\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 5\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2 The Sampling Programme and the Measurement and Description of Dispersion 7\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.1 Preliminary sampling 7\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.1.1 Planning and fieldwork 7\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.1.2 Statistical aspects 10\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2 The sampling programme 16\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2.1 The number of samples per habitat unit (e.g. plant, host or puddle) 16\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2.2 The sampling unit, its selection, size and shape 20\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2.3 The number of samples 21\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2.4 The pattern of sampling 24\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2.5 The timing of sampling 26\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.3 Dispersion 27\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.3.1 Mathematical distributions that serve as models 28\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.3.2 Biological interpretation of dispersion parameters 40\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.3.3 Nearest-neighbour and related techniques: measures of population size or of the departure from randomness of the distribution 48\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.4 Sequential sampling 51\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.4.1 Sampling numbers 51\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5 Presence or absence sampling 55\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.6 Sampling a fauna 57\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.7 Biological and other qualitative aspects of sampling 59\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.8 Jack knife and Bootstrap techniques 60\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 62\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3 Absolute Population Estimates Using Capture–Recapture Experiments 77\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1 Capture–recapture methods 78\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.1 Assumptions common to most methods 79\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.2 Estimating closed populations 86\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.3 Estimations for open populations 93\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2 Methods of marking animals 103\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2.1 Handling techniques 105\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2.2 Release 107\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2.3 Surface marks using paints and solutions of dyes 108\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2.4 Dyes and fluorescent substances in powder form 112\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2.5 Pollen 114\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2.6 Marking formed by feeding on or absorption of dyes 114\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2.7 Marking by injection, panjet or tattooing 116\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2.8 External tags 116\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2.9 Branding 117\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2.10 Mutilation 118\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2.11 Natural marks, parasites and genes 118\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2.12 Rare elements 119\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2.13 Protein marking 120\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2.14 Radioactive isotopes 120\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2.15 Radio and sonic tags 120\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 121\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e4 Absolute Population Estimates by Sampling a Unit of Habitat – Air, Plants, Plant Products and Vertebrate Hosts 139\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.1 Sampling from the air 139\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.2 Sampling apparatus 140\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.2.1 Exposed cone (Johnson–Taylor) suction trap 140\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.2.2 Enclosed cone types of suction trap including the Rothamsted 12 m trap 141\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.2.3 Rotary and other traps 143\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.3 Comparison and efficiencies of the different types of suction traps 144\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.3.1 Conversion of catch to aerial density 145\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.3.2 Conversion of density to total aerial population 146\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.4 Sampling from plants 146\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.4.1 Assessing the plant 147\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.4.2 Determining the numbers of invertebrates 147\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.4.3 The extraction of animals from herbage and debris 155\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.4.4 Methods for animals in plant tissues 163\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.4.5 Special sampling problems with animals in plant material 165\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.5 Sampling from vertebrate hosts 166\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.5.1 Sampling from living hosts 166\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.5.2 Sampling from dead hosts 169\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.5.3 Sampling from vertebrate ‘homes’ 170\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 171\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e5 Absolute Population Estimates by Sampling a Unit of Aquatic Habitat 183\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1 Open water 183\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.1 Nets 183\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.2 Pumps 187\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.3 Water-sampling bottles 187\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.4 The Patalas–Schindler volume sampler 187\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.5 Particular methods for insects 188\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2 Vegetation 190\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.1 Floating vegetation 191\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.2 Emergent vegetation 192\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.3 Submerged vegetation 194\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3 Bottom fauna 195\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3.1 Hand net sampling of forest litter 196\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3.2 Sampling from under stones 197\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3.3 The planting of removable portions of the substrate 199\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3.4 Cylinders and boxes for delimiting an area 200\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3.5 Trawls, bottom sledges and dredges 201\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3.6 Grabs 205\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3.7 Dendy inverting sampler 208\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3.8 Box samplers and corers 209\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3.9 Air-lift and suction devices 211\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.4 Poisons and anaesthetics used for sampling fish in rock pools and small ponds 211\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 213\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e6 Absolute Population Estimates by Sampling a Unit of Soil or Litter Habitat: Extraction Techniques 221\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.1 Sampling 221\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.2 Bulk staining 224\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.3 Mechanical methods of extraction 224\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.3.1 Dry sieving 224\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.3.2 Wet sieving 225\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.3.3 Soil washing and flotation 226\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.3.4 Flotation separation of plankton, meiofauna and other small animals 229\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.3.5 Separation of plant and insects by differential wetting 231\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.3.6 Centrifugation 233\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.3.7 Sedimentation 233\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.3.8 Elutriation 234\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.3.9 Sectioning 235\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.3.10 Aeration 236\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.4 Behavioural or dynamic methods 236\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.4.1 Dry extractors 237\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.4.2 Wet extractors 243\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.5 Summary of the applicability of the methods 248\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 250\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e7 Relative Methods of Population Measurement and the Derivation of Absolute Estimates 259\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.1 Factors affecting the size of relative estimates 259\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.1.1 The ‘phase’ of the animal 260\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.1.2 The activity of the animal 261\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.1.3 Differences in the response between species, sexes and individuals 263\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.1.4 The efficiency of the trap or searching method 264\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2 The uses of relative methods 266\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2.1 Measures of the availability 266\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2.2 Indices of absolute population 266\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2.3 Estimates of absolute population 267\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2.4 Removal trapping or collecting 268\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2.5 Collecting 272\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.3 Relative methods: catch per unit effort 272\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.3.1 Observation by radar 272\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.3.2 Hydroacoustic methods 273\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.3.3 Fish counters 274\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.3.4 Electric fishing 274\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.3.5 Aural detection 275\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.3.6 Exposure by plough 276\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.3.7 Collecting with a net or similar device 276\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.3.8 Visual searching and pooting 279\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.4 Relative methods: trapping 280\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.4.1 Interception traps 281\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.4.2 Flight traps combining interception and attraction 290\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.4.3 Light and other visual traps 294\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.5 Traps that attract animals by some natural stimulus or a substitute 304\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.5.1 Shelter traps 304\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.5.2 Trap host plants 305\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.5.3 Baited traps 305\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.5.4 The use of vertebrate hosts or substitutes as bait for insects 308\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.6 Using Sound 314\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 314\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e8 Estimates of Species Richness and Population Size Based on Signs, Products and Effects 337\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.1 Arthropod products 337\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.1.1 Exuviae 337\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.1.2 Frass 338\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.2 Vertebrate products and effects 341\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.3 Effects due to an individual insect 342\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4 General effects: plant damage 343\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.1 Criteria 344\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.5 Determining the relationship between damage and insect populations 347\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 348\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e9 Wildlife Population Estimates by Census and Distance Measuring Techniques 355\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.1 Census methods 356\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.2 Point and line survey methods 357\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.2.1 Indices of abundance using transects 357\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.2.2 Methods based on flushing 357\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.2.3 Line transect methods: the Fourier series estimator 360\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.2.4 Point transects 365\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.3 Distance sampling software in R 365\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.4 Spatial distribution and plotless density estimators 367\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.4.1 Closest individual or distance method 367\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.4.2 Nearest-neighbour methods 368\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 369\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e10 Observational and Experimental Methods for the Estimation of Natality, Mortality and Dispersal 373\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.1 Natality 373\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.1.1 Fertility 373\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.1.2 Numbers entering a stage 375\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.1.3 The birth-rate from mark and recapture data 382\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.2 Mortality 382\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.2.1 Total 382\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.2.2 The death-rate from mark and recapture data 383\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.2.3 Climatic factors 383\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.2.4 Biotic factors 383\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.2.5 Experimental assessment of natural enemies 390\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.3 Dispersal 396\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.3.1 Detecting and quantifying jump dispersal 397\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.3.2 Quantifying neighbourhood dispersal 397\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.4 The measurement and description of home range and territory 410\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.4.1 The minimum convex polygon area method for estimating home range 411\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.4.2 The kernel estimation method for home range 412\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.5 The rate of colonisation of a new habitat and artificial substrates 413\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.6 The direction of migration 413\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 413\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e11 The Construction, Description and Analysis of Age-specific Life-tables 429\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.1 Types of life-table and the budget 429\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.2 The construction of a budget 430\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.3 Analysis of stage-frequency data 431\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.3.1 Southwood’s graphical method 432\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.3.2 Richards \u0026amp; Waloff’s first method 432\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.3.3 Manly’s method 434\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.3.4 Ruesink’s method 435\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.3.5 Dempster’s method 435\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.3.6 Richards \u0026amp; Waloff’s Second Method 436\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.3.7 Kiritani, Nakasuji \u0026amp; Manly’s method 437\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.3.8 Kempton’s method 438\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.3.9 The Bellows and Birley Method 439\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.4 The description of budgets and life-tables 440\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.4.1 Survivorship curves 440\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.4.2 Stock–recruitment (Moran–Ricker) curves 440\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.4.3 The life-table and life expectancy 443\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.4.4 Life and fertility tables and the net reproductive rate 444\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.4.5 Population growth rates 446\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.4.6 The calculation of r 448\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.5 The analysis of life-table data 449\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.5.1 The comparison of mortality factors within a generation 449\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.5.2 Survival and life budget analysis 451\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.5.3 Sibley’s λ contribution analysis 458\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 459\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e12 Age-grouping, Time-specific Life-tables and Predictive Population Models 465\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.1 Age-grouping 465\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.2 Aging young by developmental stage 466\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.3 Aging by using structures 467\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.3.1 Annelids 467\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.3.2 Crustaceans 467\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.3.3 Insects 467\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.3.4 Molluscs 472\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.3.5 Fish 473\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.3.6 Lampreys 474\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.3.7 Reptiles and amphibians 474\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.3.8 Birds 475\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.3.9 Mammals 475\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.4 Time-specific life-tables and survival rates 476\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.4.1 Physiological time 478\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.4.2 Life-table parameters 479\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.4.3 Recruitment in the field 479\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.4.4 Empirical models 479\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.4.5 Intrinsic rate models and variable life-tables 480\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.4.6 Lewis–Leslie matrices and R packages 481\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 484\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e13 Species Richness, Diversity and Packing 495\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.1 Diversity 496\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.1.1 Description of α- and γ-diversity 497\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.1.2 Species richness 498\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.1.3 Models for the S:N relationship 505\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.1.4 Non-parametric indices of diversity 509\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.1.5 Which model or index? 512\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.1.6 Comparing communities – diversity ordering 513\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.1.7 Procedure to determine α-diversity 515\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.1.8 Determining β-diversity 517\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.2 Similarity and the comparison and classification of samples 520\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.2.1 Measures of complementarity 521\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.2.2 Similarity indices 521\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.2.3 Multivariate analysis 525\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.3 Species packing 530\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.3.1 Measurement of interspecific association 530\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.3.2 Measurement of resource utilisation 534\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.3.3 Niche size and competition coefficients 540\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 542\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e14 The Estimation of Productivity and the Construction of Energy Budgets 551\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.1 Estimation of standing crop 553\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.1.1 Measurement of biomass 553\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.2 Determination of energy density 554\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.3 Estimation of energy flow 555\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.4 The measurement of production 557\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.5 The measurement of feeding and assimilation 560\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.5.1 The quality of the food eaten 560\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.6 Feeding and assimilation rates 561\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.6.1 Radiotracer techniques 561\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.6.2 Gravimetric techniques 563\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.6.3 Indicator methods 564\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.6.4 Measurement of faecal output 565\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.7 The measurement of the energy loss due to respiration and metabolic process 565\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.7.1 Calorimetric 565\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.7.2 The exchange of respiratory gases 565\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.7.3 The respiratory rate 567\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.8 The energy budget, efficiencies and transfer coefficients 573\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.8.1 The energy budget of a population (or trophic level) 573\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.8.2 Energy transfer across trophic links 574\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.9 Identification of ecological pathways using stable isotopes 576\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.10 Assessment of energy and time costs of strategies 577\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 578\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e15 Studies at Large Spatial, Temporal and Numerical Scales and the Classification of Habitats 587\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.1 Remote sensing data from satellites 589\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.2 Remote sensing using piloted and unmanned aircraft 591\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.3 Long-term studies 592\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.3.1 Planning spatial and temporal sampling 593\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.3.2 The classification of time series 593\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.3.3 Detecting synchrony 603\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.3.4 Measuring temporal variability 603\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.3.5 Detecting break-points 604\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.4 Geographical information systems 607\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.5 Detection of density dependence in time series 608\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.5.1 Bulmer’s (1975) test 608\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.5.2 Pollard et al.’s (1987) randomisation test 609\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.5.3 Dennis and Taper’s (1994) bootstrap approach 611\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.5.4 Using a battery of approaches to detect density dependence 611\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.6 Citizen science projects 613\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.7 Ecosystem services 613\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.8 Habitat classification 614\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.8.1 Qualitative 614\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.8.2 Quantitative 616\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 617\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndex 623\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cb\u003ePeter A. Henderson\u003c\/b\u003e, Director of Pisces Conservation, Southampton, UK. \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eT. R. E. Southwood\u003c\/b\u003e, Lecturer, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, UK.\u003c\/p\u003e","brand":"Wiley-Blackwell","offers":[{"title":"Default Title","offer_id":47989099757797,"sku":"NP9781118895283","price":63.5,"currency_code":"USD","in_stock":false}],"thumbnail_url":"\/\/cdn.shopify.com\/s\/files\/1\/1842\/7735\/files\/9781118895283.jpg?v=1761782795","url":"https:\/\/k12savings.com\/products\/ecological-methods-isbn-9781118895283","provider":"K12savings","version":"1.0","type":"link"}