{"product_id":"natural-systems-isbn-9781118905920","title":"Natural Systems","description":"\u003cp\u003eOrganised into four sections, this text discusses the organisation of the living world. \u003c\/p\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003eLinks Ecology, Biodiversity and Biogeography\u003c\/li\u003e \u003cli\u003eBridges modern and conventional Ecology\u003c\/li\u003e \u003cli\u003eBuilds sequentially from the concept and importance of species, through patterns of diversity to help consider global patterns of biogeography\u003c\/li\u003e \u003cli\u003eUses real data sets to help train in essential skills\u003c\/li\u003e \u003c\/ul\u003e \u003cp\u003ePreface xv\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcknowledgements xix\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbbreviations xxi\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1 Introduction: defining nature 1\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.1 How little we know 1\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2 Pressing questions 2\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3 The hierarchy of nature 2\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.4 Biodiversity 4\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5 Myths to bust 4\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.6 Further information 5\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.6.1 Recommended reading 5\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 5\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePart I: Species\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2 What is a species? 9\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.1 The big question 9\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2 Species concepts 10\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2.1 Nominalistic 10\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2.2 Morphological 11\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2.3 Biological 12\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2.4 Phylogenetic 13\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2.5 Genetic 14\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.3 Solving the riddle 16\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.4 Coda: Species richness 17\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5 Conclusions 17\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5.1 Recommended reading 17\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5.2 Questions for the future 17\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 17\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3 The history of life 19\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1 The big question 19\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2 Sources of evidence 19\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2.1 The fossil record 19\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2.2 Molecular evidence 20\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.3 A brief history of diversity 20\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.4 Uneven diversity 24\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.5 Conclusions 25\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.5.1 Recommended reading 26\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.5.2 Questions for the future 26\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 26\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e4 How many species are there? 29\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.1 The big question 29\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.2 How can we not know? 29\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.3 Discovery rates 30\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.4 Scaling 32\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.5 Sampling-based methods 33\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.6 Other organisms 36\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.7 Wrapping up 36\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.8 Conclusions 37\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.8.1 Recommended reading 38\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.8.2 Questions for the future 38\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 38\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePart II: Diversity\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e5 Measuring diversity 43\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1 The big question 43\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2 Scales of diversity 43\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3 Species richness 43\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.4 Believing in estimates 46\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.5 A SAD story 47\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.6 Diversity of species 49\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.7 Other measures of diversity 51\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.8 β diversity 53\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.9 Case study: The Binatang project 54\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.10 Conclusions 57\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.10.1 Recommended reading 57\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.10.2 Questions for the future 57\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 57\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e6 Niches 61\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.1 The big question 61\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.2 Historical background 61\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.3 Back to basics 63\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.4 Birth and death rates 63\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.5 The ZNGI 66\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.6 Impact vectors 67\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.7 Supply points 67\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.8 Coexistence 68\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.9 The evidence 71\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.10 Implications 73\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.11 Conclusions 76\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.11.1 Recommended reading 77\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.11.2 Questions for the future 77\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 77\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e7 Patterns in species richness 79\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.1 The big question 79\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2 Area 79\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.3 Local and regional species richness 81\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.4 Local patterns in species richness 85\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.4.1 Elevation 85\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.4.2 Depth 88\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.4.3 Peninsulas and Bays 88\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.4.4 Isolation 89\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.4.5 Mid-Domain Effects 89\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.5 Congruence 89\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.6 Assembling a model 90\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.7 Conclusions 91\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.7.1 Recommended reading 91\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.7.2 Questions for the future 92\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 92\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e8 Drivers of diversity 95\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.1 The big question 95\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.2 Coexistence or co-occurrence? 95\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.3 Energy and resources 95\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4 Diversity begets diversity 101\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.1 Heterogeneity in space 101\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.2 Heterogeneity in time 103\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.5 Disturbance 104\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.6 Top-down control 105\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.7 Expanding our model 109\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.8 Conclusions 110\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.8.1 Recommended reading 110\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.8.2 Questions for the future 111\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 111\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e9 Does diversity matter? 113\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.1 The big question 113\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.2 Ecosystems 113\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.3 What shape is the relationship? 115\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.4 Field experiments 117\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.5 Other measures of diversity 121\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.6 Multifunctionality 122\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.7 The real world 125\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.8 Species richness and productivity 126\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.9 Conclusions 127\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.9.1 Recommended reading 127\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.9.2 Questions for the future 128\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 128\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePart III: Communities\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e10 Organisation at the community scale 133\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.1 The big question 133\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.2 Definitions 133\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.3 Communities in the field 134\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.4 Quantitative approaches 135\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.5 Community structure 137\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.6 Food chains 140\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.7 Food webs 142\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.8 Complexity and stability 145\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.9 Trophic cascades 147\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.10 SAD again 148\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.11 Complex systems 151\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.12 Unified neutral theory 153\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.13 Metabolic theory of ecology 155\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.14 Conclusions 156\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.14.1 Recommended reading 157\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.14.2 Questions for the future 157\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 157\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e11 Stability 161\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.1 The big question 161\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.2 Stable states 161\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.3 Changing environments 164\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.4 Hysteresis 165\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.5 Predicting changes 167\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.6 Coral reefs 169\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.7 Shifting baselines 170\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.8 Conclusions 173\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.8.1 Recommended reading 174\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.8.2 Questions for the future 175\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.9 Coda: the seduction of Gaia 175\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 176\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e12 Changes through time 179\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.1 The big question 179\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.2 Succession 179\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.3 Succession and niche theory 180\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.4 Examples of succession 182\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.5 Disturbance 184\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.6 Modelling succession 185\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.7 Regeneration 187\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.8 Plants and animals 188\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.9 Case study: Mpala, Kenya 188\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.10 Conclusions 190\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.10.1 Recommended reading 190\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.10.2 Questions for the future 190\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 191\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e13 Changes through space 193\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.1 The big question 193\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.2 Community assembly 193\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.2.1 Competitive exclusion 194\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.2.2 Historical processes 196\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.2.3 Habitat checkerboards 197\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.2.4 Chance and contingency 198\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.3 Metacommunities 199\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.4 Dispersal limitation 204\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.5 Combining environment and dispersal 208\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.6 Conclusions 210\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.6.1 Recommended reading 210\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.6.2 Questions for the future 210\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 210\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePart IV: Biogeography\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e14 Global patterns of life 215\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.1 The big question 215\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.2 Biogeography 215\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.3 Phytogeography 217\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.4 Ecoregions 222\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.5 Empirical approaches 223\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.6 The oceans 225\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.7 Fresh water 228\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.8 Conclusions 228\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.8.1 Recommended reading 229\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.8.2 Questions for the future 229\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 229\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e15 Regional species richness 233\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.1 The big question 233\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.2 Climate and productivity 234\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.3 Other processes 236\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.4 Scale and productivity 238\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.5 Latitudinal gradients 240\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.6 Centres of origin 243\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.7 Regional species–area relationships 244\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.8 Confounding effects 244\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.9 Conclusions 245\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.9.1 Recommended reading 246\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.9.2 Questions for the future 246\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 246\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e16 Latitudinal gradients 249\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.1 The big question 249\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.2 Hypotheses 249\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.3 Geographic area 249\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.4 Climatic stability 251\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.5 Productivity 252\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.6 Niche size 253\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.7 Evolutionary speed 254\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.8 Out of the tropics 257\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.9 Conclusions 261\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.9.1 Recommended reading 262\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.9.2 Questions for the future 262\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 262\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e17 Earth history 265\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.1 The big question 265\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.2 Geological history 265\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.3 Continental drift 266\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.4 Echoes of Pangæa 269\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.5 Climatic effects 272\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.6 Ice ages 274\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.7 Sea level 278\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.8 Extinctions 278\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.9 Conclusions 281\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.9.1 Recommended reading 283\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.9.2 Questions for the future 283\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 283\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e18 Dispersal 287\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.1 The big question 287\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.2 Range expansion 287\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.3 Mechanisms of dispersal 289\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.4 Barriers 290\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.5 Case studies 292\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.5.1 New Zealand 292\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.5.2 Madagascar 295\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.6 Conclusions 299\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.6.1 Recommended reading 300\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.6.2 Questions for the future 300\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 300\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e19 Life on islands 303\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.1 The big question 303\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.2 Types of island 303\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.3 Island biotas 305\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.4 Evolution of endemics 305\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.5 Size changes 307\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.6 Reproduction and dispersal 310\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.7 Super-generalists 311\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.8 Endemic communities 312\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.9 Disharmony 312\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.10 Assembly rules 314\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.11 Island species richness 314\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.12 The equilibrium model of island biogeography 317\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.13 Testing the theory 319\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.14 Conclusions 320\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.14.1 Recommended reading 320\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.14.2 Questions for the future 320\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 320\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e20 Reinventing islands 323\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.1 The big question 323\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.2 A critique of EMIB 323\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.3 Rival hypotheses 326\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.4 Disturbance 326\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.5 Relaxation 329\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.6 Extinctions 331\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.7 Invasions 331\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.8 A new theory? 332\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.9 Evolution 333\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.10 Conclusions 338\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.10.1 Recommended reading 338\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.10.2 Questions for the future 338\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 338\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e21 What is a natural system? 341\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.1 The big question 341\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.2 Lessons learnt 342\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.2.1 Ecological processes are scale dependent 342\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.2.2 All interactions are nested 342\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.2.3 There is no such thing as the balance of nature 342\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.2.4 Everything is contingent 343\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.3 Processes not systems 343\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 344\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAppendix A Diversity analysis case study: Butterfly conservation in the Rocky Mountains 345\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA.1 Software resources 345\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA.2 Calculations 346\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA.3 Synthesis 350\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA.4 Conclusions 351\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 352\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlossary 353\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndex 359\u003c\/p\u003e  \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDr Markus Eichhorn\u003c\/strong\u003e, School of Biology, University of Nottingham, UK.\u003c\/p\u003e","brand":"Wiley-Blackwell","offers":[{"title":"Default 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