Hydrogen and Fuel Cells

Authored by 40 of the most prominent and renowned international scientists from academia, industry, institutions and government, this handbook explores mature, evolving technologies for a clean, economically viable alternative to non-renewable energy. In so doing, it includes how hydrogen can be safely produced, stored, transported and utilized, while also covering such broader topics as the environmental impact, education and regulatory developments.

Foreword xix

Preface xxi

List of Contributors xxv

Fuel cell basics

1 Electrocatalysis and Catalyst Degradation Challenges in Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells 3
Hubert A. Gasteiger, Daniel R. Baker, Robert N. Carter, Wenbin Gu, Yuxin Liu, Frederick T. Wagner, and Paul T. Yu

Abstract 3

1.1 Introduction 3

1.2 Voltage Losses in State-of-the-Art Automotive PEM Fuel Cells 4

1.3 Catalyst Development Needs and Approaches 6

1.4 Catalyst Degradation via Platinum Dissolution 10

1.5 Carbon-Support Corrosion 11

1.6 Conclusion 14

References 14

2 High-Temperature PEM Fuel Cells: Electrolytes, Cells, and Stacks 17
Christoph Wannek

Abstract 17

2.1 Introduction 17

2.2 Approaches to Increase the Operating Temperature of Sulfonated Membranes 19

2.3 HT-PEFCs with Phosphoric Acid-Based Polybenzimidazole-Type Membranes 23

2.4 Alternative Liquid Electrolytes 33

2.5 Acidic Salts and Oxides 35

2.6 Conclusion 36

References 37

3 Current Status of and Recent Developments in Direct Liquid Fuel Cells 41
Jürgen Mergel, Andreas Glüsen, and Christoph Wannek

Abstract 41

3.1 Introduction 41

3.2 Direct Methanol Fuel Cells 44

3.3 Direct Ethanol Fuel Cells 55

3.4 Conclusion 57

References 57

4 High-Temperature Fuel Cell Technology 61
Gael P. G. Corre and John T. S. Irvine

Abstract 61

4.1 Introduction 61

4.2 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell 65

4.3 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell 78

4.4 Thermodynamics of Fuel Cells 78

4.5 Fuel Cell Efficiency 80

References 85

5 Advanced Modeling in Fuel Cell Systems: a Review of Modeling Approaches 89
Matthew M. Mench

Abstract 89

5.1 Introduction 89

5.2 State-of-the-Art Computational Models for Low-Temperature Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell Systems 98

5.3 Case Study of Water Management in PEFCs 102

5.4 Future Research Needs 112

Acknowledgments 113

References 113

Fuel Infrastructures

6 Hydrogen Distribution Infrastructure for an Energy System: Present Status and Perspectives of Technologies 121
Françoise Barbier

Abstract 121

6.1 Introduction 121

6.2 Hydrogen Transport by Gaseous Pipelines 123

6.3 Hydrogen Transport by Road 129

6.4 Alternative Hydrogen Delivery Systems 133

6.5 Stationary Bulk Storage of Hydrogen 134

6.6 Supporting Technologies 136

6.7 Hydrogen Fueling Stations 141

6.8 Conclusion 145

References 146

7 Fuel Provision for Early Market Applications 149
Manfred Fischedick and Andreas Pastowski

Abstract 149

7.1 Introduction: Hydrogen Supply Today and Tomorrow 149

7.2 Balancing New Applications and Hydrogen Supply 151

7.3 Criteria for Fuel Supply – Short- and Long-Term Requirements 154

7.4 Hydrogen Production and Distribution 156

7.5 Conclusion 164

References 165

Hydrogen Production Technologies

8 Non-Thermal Production of Pure Hydrogen from Biomass: HYVOLUTION 169
Pieternel A.M. Claassen, Truus de Vrije, Emmanuel G. Koukios, Ed W. J. van Niel, Ebru Özgür, I˙ nci Erog˘lu, Isabella Nowik, Michael Modigell, Walter Wukovits, Anton Friedl, Dominik Ochs, and Werner Ahrer

Abstract 169

8.1 Introduction 169

8.2 State of the Art 171

8.3 Methodology 171

8.4 The Project’s Current Relation to the State of the Art 174

8.5 Conclusion 185

Acknowledgments 185

References 185

9 Thermochemical Cycles 189
Christian Sattler

Abstract 189

9.1 Introduction 189

9.2 Historical Development 190

9.3 State of Work 191

9.4 Conclusion and Outlook 202

Abbreviations 203

References 203

10 Hydrogen Production: Fundamentals and Case Study Summaries 207
Kevin W. Harrison, Robert Remick, Gregory D. Martin, and Aaron Hoskin

Abstract 207

10.1 Heating Value, Heat of Reaction, and Free Energy 207

10.2 Heat of Formation and Free Energy of Formation 209

10.3 Calculating Fuel Cell System Efficiency 210

10.4 Water Electrolysis 213

10.5 Case Studies of Wind/Hydrogen Projects 217

10.6 Conclusion 225

Acronyms and Abbreviations 225

Acknowledgment 226

References 226

11 High-Temperature Water Electrolysis Using Planar Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Technology: a Review 227
Mohsine Zahid, Josef Schefold, and Annabelle Brisse

Abstract 227

11.1 Introduction to High-Temperature Electrolysis 228

11.2 History of High Temperature Steam Electrolysis 230

11.3 Solid Oxide Electrolyzer Cells 233

11.4 Solid Oxide Electrolyzer Stacks 239

11.5 Conclusion 240

References 241

12 Alkaline Electrolysis – Introduction and Overview 243
Detlef Stolten and Dennis Krieg

Abstract 243

12.1 Introduction 243

12.2 Definition 244

12.3 The Principle 244

12.4 History 246

12.5 Basics of Electrolysis 249

12.6 Technical Alkaline Concepts 254

12.7 Status of Technology 265

12.8 Conclusion 266

Acknowledgments 267

References 267

13 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) Water Electrolysis 271
Tom Smolinka, Sebastian Rau, and Christopher Hebling

Abstract 271

13.1 Introduction 271

13.2 Fundamentals of PEM Electrolysis 272

13.3 Membrane Electrode Assembly 278

13.4 Current Collectors, Bipolar Plates, and Stack Design 280

13.5 System Design 285

13.6 Conclusion 286

13.7 Symbols and Abbreviations 287

References 288

14 Reforming and Gasification – Fossil Energy Carriers 291
Jens Rostrup-Nielsen

Abstract 291

14.1 Introduction. The Need for H2 291

14.2 Basic Technologies 292

14.3 Process Schemes 296

14.4 Hydrogen from Coal 301

14.5 Conclusion 303

References 303

15 Reforming and Gasification – Biomass 307
Achim Schaadt, Siegfried W. Rapp, and Christopher Hebling

Abstract 307

15.1 Introduction 307

15.2 Gasification of Biomass 308

References 318

16 State of the Art of Ceramic Membranes for Hydrogen Separation 321
Wilhelm-A. Meulenberg, Mariya E. Ivanova, Tim van Gestel, Martin Bram, Hans-Peter Buchkremer, Detlev Stöver, and José M. Serra

Abstract 321

16.1 Introduction 321

16.2 Microporous Membranes for H2 Separation 322

16.3 Dense Ceramic Membranes for H2 Separation 333

16.4 Conclusion and Outlook 344

Acknowledgments 346

References 346

17 Hydrogen System Assessment: Recent Trends and Insights 351
Joan M. Ogden 351

Abstract 351

17.1 Introduction 352

17.2 Survey of Hydrogen System Assessment Models: Recent Trends and Insights 354

17.3 Towards a Comprehensive Framework for Hydrogen Systems Analysis 367

References 368

Storages

18 Physical Hydrogen Storage Technologies – a Current Overview 377
Bert Hobein and Roland Krüger

Abstract 377

18.1 Introduction 377

18.2 General Overview 377

18.3 Fuel System Design and Specifications 382

18.4 Conclusion 393

References 393

19 Metal Hydrides 395
Etsuo Akiba

Abstract 395

19.1 Introduction 395

19.2 Part I: Fundamentals of Metal Hydrides for Hydrogen Storage 396

19.3 Part II: Applications of Metal Hydrides 404

19.4 Conclusion 411

References 412

20 Complex Hydrides 415
Andreas Borgschulte, Robin Gremaud, Oliver Friedrichs, Philippe Mauron, Arndt Remhof, and Andreas Züttel

Abstract 415

20.1 Introduction 415

20.2 The Structure of Complex Hydrides 419

20.3 Thermodynamics of Complex Hydrides 420

20.4 Organic Hydrides for Hydrogen Storage 424

20.5 Hydrogen Storage Systems Using Complex and Organic Hydrides 425

References 427

21 Adsorption Technologies 431
Barbara Schmitz and Michael Hirscher

Abstract 431

21.1 Adsorption 431

21.2 History of Adsorption 432

21.3 Hydrogen Adsorption 432

21.4 Materials 433

21.5 Hydrogen Storage 436

21.6 Total Storage Capacity 439

21.7 Conclusion 441

References 441

Policy Perspectives, Initiatives and Cooperations

22 National Strategies and Programs 449
Jörg Schindler

Abstract 449

22.1 The Imminent Transition to a Postfossil Energy World 449

22.2 The Role of Secondary Energy Carriers 454

22.3 Hydrogen in Transport 455

22.4 National Strategies and Programs 456

22.5 Conclusion 462

Acknowledgment 462

References 463

23 Renewable Hydrogen Production 465
Alan C. Lloyd, Ed Pike, and Anil Baral

Abstract 465

23.1 Introduction 465

23.2 Rationale for Renewable Hydrogen 465

23.3 Renewable Hydrogen Pathways 472

23.4 Renewable Hydrogen Policy Drivers 480

23.5 Conclusion 484

Acknowledgment 485

References 486

24 Environmental Impact of Hydrogen Technologies 489
Ibrahim Dincer and T. Nejat Veziroglu

Abstract 489

24.1 Introduction 489

24.2 Sustainable Development 490

24.3 Sustainable Development and Thermodynamic Principles 493

24.4 Hydrogen Versus Fossil Fuels 497

24.5 Future Energy Systems 505

24.6 Case Study I 507

24.7 Case Study II 515

24.8 Conclusion 524

Acknowledgments 524

Nomenclature 524

References 526

Strategic Analyses

25 Research and Development Targets and Priorities 533
Clemens Alexander Trudewind and Hermann-Josef Wagner

Abstract 533

25.1 Introduction 533

25.2 Procedure 534

25.3 Scenarios 534

25.4 Investigation of Technologies 536

25.5 Conclusion 546

Acknowledgments 547

References 548

26 Life Cycle Analysis and Economic Impact 551
Ulrich Wagner, Michael Beer, Jochen Habermann, and Philipp Pfeifroth

Abstract 551

26.1 Introduction 551

26.2 Definitions and Methodology 552

26.3 Extraction, Conversion, and Distribution of Fuels 553

26.4 Results of Process Chain Analyses 555

26.5 Conclusion 563

References 564

27 Strategic and Socioeconomic Studies in Hydrogen Energy 567
David Hart

Abstract 567

27.1 Introduction 567

27.2 Defining Socioeconomics 568

27.3 Examples 569

27.4 Economic Analysis 569

27.5 Visions and Futures 570

27.6 Social Behavior 571

27.7 Drivers and Barriers 572

27.8 Finance 572

27.9 Business 573

27.10 Conclusion 574

Further Reading 574

28 Market Introduction for Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies 577
Marianne Haug and Hanns-Joachim Neef

Abstract 577

28.1 Introduction 577

28.2 Market Introduction of Radical Innovations: What Do We Know from the Literature? 579

28.3 The Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Road Maps: from Visions to Public/Private Coalitions 581

28.4 International Cooperation: Value Added During Market Introduction? 583

28.5 Market Introduction: The Status Quo 584

28.6 Conclusion: Co-evolution of Technology and Policy 593

References 594

29 Hydrogen and Fuel Cells around the Corner – the Role of Regions and Municipalities Towards Commercialization 597
Andreas Ziolek, Marieke Reijalt, and Thomas Kattenstein

Abstract 597

29.1 Introduction 597

29.2 The Role of Regional and Local Activities 599

29.3 HyRaMP – Organizing Local and Regional Drivers in Europe 604

29.4 Conclusion 605

References 606

30 Zero Regio: Recent Experience with Hydrogen Vehicles and Refueling Infrastructure 609
Heinrich Lienkamp and Ashok Rastogi

Abstract 609

30.1 Introduction 610

30.2 Hydrogen Production and Quality 611

30.3 Refueling Infrastructure 614

30.4 FCV Fleets and Demonstration 620

30.5 Socioeconomic Investigations 623

30.6 Dissemination 623

30.7 Conclusion 624

Acknowledgments 625

References 626

Safety Issues

31 Safety Analysis of Hydrogen Vehicles and Infrastructure 629
Thomas Jordan and Wolfgang Breitung

Abstract 629

31.1 Motivation of Hydrogen-Specific Safety Investigations 630

31.2 Phenomena 631

31.3 Safety Analysis Procedures 635

31.4 Scenarios 637

31.5 Outlook 643

References 644

Further Reading 647

32 Advancing Commercialization of Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Through International Cooperation of Regulations, Codes, and Standards (RCS) 649
Randy Dey

Abstract 649

32.1 Introduction 649

32.2 Hydrogen – a Part of the New Energy Mix 650

32.3 Regulations, Codes, and Standards (RCS) –a Necessary Step to Commercialization 650

32.4 International RCS Bodies – Responsible for the Standardization of Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies 651

32.5 International Cooperation in RCS 652

32.6 International Cooperation Between RCS and Pre-Normative Research (PNR) 653

32.7 Hydrogen Refueling Stations (HRS) 653

32.8 Conclusion 655

Definitions 655

References 656

Existing and Emerging Markets

33 Aerospace Applications of Hydrogen and Fuel Cells 661
Christian Roessler, Joachim Schoemann, and Horst Baier

Abstract 661

33.1 Introduction and Overview of Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Use 661

33.2 Possible Fuel Cell Types for Aviation 663

33.3 Application in Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) 664

33.4 Applications in General Aviation 670

33.5 Application to Commercial Transport Aircraft 674

33.6 Conclusion 677

References 678

34 Auxiliary Power Units for Light-Duty Vehicles, Trucks, Ships, and Airplanes 681
Ralf Peters

Abstract 681

34.1 Operating Conditions for Auxiliary Power Units 681

34.2 System Design 691

34.3 Present Status of Fuel Cell-Based APU Systems 703

34.4 System Evaluation 708

34.5 Conclusion 709

Acknowledgments 709

References 710

35 Portable Applications and Light Traction 715
Jürgen Garche

Abstract 715

35.1 Introduction 715

35.2 Demand on Fuel Cells for Portable Applications 716

35.3 Fuel Cell Technology 717

35.4 Fuel 720

35.5 Applications 721

References 732

Stationary Applications

36 High-Temperature Fuel Cells in Decentralized Power Generation 735
Robert Steinberger-Wilckens and Niels Christiansen

Abstract 735

36.1 Introduction 735

36.2 Distributed Generation as a Tool to Improve the Efficiency of Electricity Provision 736

36.3 Fuel Cells in Distributed Generation 739

36.4 Designing for High Efficiency 741

36.5 Developments in the United States 744

36.6 Asian and Pacific Developments 746

36.7 European Developments 748

36.8 Economic Prospects in DG Fuel Cell Development 750

36.9 Outlook 751

References 751

37 Fuel Cells for Buildings 755
John F. Elter

Abstract 755

37.1 Introduction 755

37.2 Voice of the Customer37.2 Voice of the Customer 758

37.3 Fuel Cell Basics and Types37.3 Fuel Cell Basics and Types 761

37.4 Recent Advances 768

37.5 Fuel Cell Systems 772

37.6 System Control 784

37.7 Conclusion 785

References 786

Transportation Applications

38 Fuel Cell Power Trains 793
Peter Froeschle and Jörg Wind

Abstract 793

38.1 Introduction 793

38.2 Layout and Functionality of the Fuel Cell Hybrid Power Train 795

38.3 Technological Leaders of Fuel Cell Drive Train Development 799

38.4 Next Milestones on the Way to Commercialization 808

38.5 Future Outlook 809

References 809

39 Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engines 811
H. Eichlseder, P. Grabner, and R. Heindl

Abstract 811

39.1 A History 811

39.2 State of the Art 814

39.3 New Concepts 818

39.4 Future Perspectives 825

39.5 Conclusion 829

References 829

40 Systems Analysis and Well-to-Wheel Studies 831
Thomas Grube, Bernd Höhlein, Christoph Stiller, and Werner Weindorf

Abstract 831

40.1 Introduction 831

40.2 Platinum Group Metal Requirements for Fuel Cell Systems 832

40.3 Dynamic Powertrain Simulation 836

40.4 Well-to-Wheel Studies 841

Abbreviations 849

Symbols 850

References 850

41 Electrification in Transportation Systems 853
Arndt Freialdenhoven and Henning Wallentowitz

Abstract 853

41.1 Driving Forces for Electric Mobility 853

41.2 Design of Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) 856

41.3 Requirements on Players 869

41.4 Conclusion 872

References 873

Index 875

“There are shortcomings, but overall it is a very useful resource for not only students and researchers in the field, but also decision makers from industry and in public office.” (Energy Technology, 1 October 2013)

Prof. Detlef Stolten is the Director of the Institute of Energy Research at the Forschungszentrum Julich. Prof Stolten received his doctorate from the University of Technology at Clausthal,Germany. He served many years as a Research Scientist in the laboratories of Robert Bosch and Daimler Benz/Dornier. In 1998 he accepted the position of Director of the Institute of Materials and Process Technology at the Research Center Julich. Two years later he became Professor for Fuel Cell Technology at the University of Technology (RWTH) at Aachen. Prof. Stolten's research focuses on fuel cells, implementing results from research in innovative products, procedures and processes in collaboration with industry, contributing towards bridging the gap between science and technology. His research activities are focused on energy process engineering of SOFC and PEFC systems, i.e. electrochemistry, stack technology, process and systems engineering as well as systems analysis. Prof Stolten represents Germany in the Executive Committee of the IEA Annex Advanced Fuel Cells and is on the advisory board of the journal Fuel Cells. Prof Stolten is the Chair of the World Hydrogen Energy Conference held in May, 2010.


Hydrogen energy is a hot topic in the goal to develop a greener and more efficient power technology. With water as its only by-product and its availability in all parts of the world, hydrogen promises to be the next great fuel source, but its production, storage and infrastructure remains a challenge. While car manufacturers have released hydrogen-powered vehicles, their commercialization is still in its infancy, due to the lack of an infrastructure to transport hydrogen safely and efficiently to a mass market.
Authored by 40 of the most prominent and renowned international scientists from academia, industry, institutions and government, this handbook explores mature, evolving technologies for a clean, economically viable alternative to non-renewable energy. In so doing, it also covers such broader topics as the environmental impact, education and regulatory developments.